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Types of Sources

  • Common Source Types
  • Information Cycle
  • Primary v. Secondary
  • Popular v. Scholarly

NOTE for users of screen readers: The collection of tabs above, while presented as a list, is clickable. 导航到所需的列表项，按空格键激活该选项卡.

一旦你有了一个研究问题，你需要信息来源来回答它. Your sources should also address the following information needs:

  • 包括背景信息，以帮助你更多地了解你的主题.
  • 帮助你向你的听众描述你的研究问题的情况，并解释为什么它很重要.
  • 提供证据来支持你的观点，让你的听众相信你的答案是正确的或者是最合理的.
  • 报告其他人对你的研究问题的看法，包括任何不同的答案.

你使用的资料来源类型取决于你的作业和你的主题. Ask yourself questions such as:

  • Do I need background information?
  • Do I need a quick reference or specific fact?
  • Do I need a general overview?
  • 我的主题是否适合流行的来源，如杂志或我需要学术期刊文章?
  • Do I need evidence to support my point of view?
  • Do I need a firsthand account?
  • Do I need the most current information available?

Once you determine what information you need, you're ready to select the types of sources that best fit your need. The following table describes the most common source types.

Types of Information Sources
Source Type Disadvantages Best for...
Encyclopedias
Encyclopedias contain brief overviews or summaries on a given topic. 一篇典型的文章包括定义、背景信息、主要观点、事实和统计数据. The authors are experts in their field of study. 一般百科全书涵盖了广泛的主题，而主题百科全书在特定领域提供了更全面的覆盖.		 Because they mostly repeat established, factual information, encyclopedias should not be cited in a college research paper, unless directly quoted. Good place to start if you know very little about a topic

Background information

Key ideas, facts, dates and concepts

References to other relevant sources
Books
Books provide in-depth coverage on a given topic. 它们可以为从普通读者到学者的各种读者而写. 学者们写的学术书籍总是包含书中引用的资料的参考书目.		 Not as current as other sources

Not conducive to quick overview		 Background information

Broad overview of topic or event

Background and historical information

References to other relevant sources
Magazines
杂志上有关于大众感兴趣的话题和时事的文章. 文章面向普通读者，由专职作家或记者(通常不是主题专家)撰写，他们可能会或可能不会引用其来源. Magazines are usually published on a weekly or monthly basis.		 Articles not always written by subject experts

Include varying points of view and opinions which require evaluation

No references		 General information written for non-experts or the general public

Timely information or opinions on current issues or popular culture

Information on people in the news
Newspapers
报纸提供各种议题或时事最新发展的最新资讯. Coverage can be local, regional, national and international. Articles are written by staff writers or reporters. 一些文章包含事实信息，而另一些则是基于观点的. Newspapers are usually published daily or weekly.		 Articles often focus on relevant facts rather than big picture

正在进行的故事可能不会被一致地报道，从而留下信息空白

Information may be biased		 Breaking news

Information on local issues or events

Expert and popular opinions (e.g., editorials and other opinion pieces)

Older newspapers provide a historical perspective
Academic/Scholarly Journals
Journal articles are written by experts in a field for other experts. They provide in-depth research on very specific topics. Some journals are peer reviewed, 这意味着这些文章的质量和重要性都经过了其他学者的审查. Journals are typically published on a monthly or quarterly basis.		 Contain specialized jargon difficult for non-experts to understand

Focus of article may be too narrow for general research needs		 Authoritative, in-depth information

Evidence

Learn what professionals are writing and publishing about your topic

References to other scholarly sources
Web Sites
网络浏览器提供访问互联网上免费提供的内容，包括网页, blogs, social media sites, images, videos and sound files. 上面列出的源类型的数字副本也可以获得.		 Since anyone can publish on the internet, websites vary in terms of the quality of information they offer. You must carefully evaluate what you find. Up-to-the-minute information

Government publications

Company information

Expert and popular opinions

"Sources and information needs" adapted from Sources and Information Needs, by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries, licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license. "Types of information sources" adapted from Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research, created by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries under a CC BY 4.0 license; and Types of Information Sources，由伍斯特山社区学院LaChance图书馆创作(经许可使用).

信息周期指的是信息产生和分发的方式，以及它如何随时间变化, from instant, up-to-date posts on social media to a broader, more thorough analysis in books and journals. 了解这个过程的工作原理可以帮助您确定可靠和可用的资源.

事件发生后，有关该事件的信息将以类似于以下的模式提供:

WITHIN MINUTES: Social media. Information may be incomplete, false, or biased. Examples: Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, blogs.

WITHIN DAYS: News sites, TV, radio and daily newspapers. Information gets added, updated and verified. Opinions emerge. Examples: CNN.com, Fox News, BBC Radio, New York Times.

WITHIN A WEEK: Weekly Magazines. Offers more insight. Likely to include context information, interviews, related topics. Examples: Time, Newsweek, People, The New Yorker.

WITHIN A MONTH: Monthly Magazines. Additional time allows for better reporting. May include opinions. Examples: Wired, Scientific American, National Geographic.

3+ MONTHS LATER: Scholarly Journals. Written by experts. Well-researched and objective. Examples: Journal of American Culture, Nature, JAMA.

12+ MONTHS LATER: Books. Benefit most from hindsight. Give most in-depth coverage of topic. 例子:非小说类书籍、传记、教科书、参考资料.

 

information timeline

Information Timeline by adstarkel, licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 license.

VIDEO: The Information Cycle (Darrell W. Krueger Library, Winona State University)

来源也可以根据信息是第一手的还是二手的来分类.

Primary sources 包含来自与该主题有直接联系的人的第一手信息. Examples include an eyewitness account of an event, 或者由实验人员撰写的实验或学术研究的结果.

Examples of primary sources:

  • speeches
  • diaries or journals
  • correspondence such as letters, texts, or email messages
  • interviews
  • autobiographies
  • live performances
  • social media posts
  • records of organizations and governmental agencies
  • photographs, artwork, or other visual artifacts
  • literary works such as stories, poems, or novels
  • statistical data
  • government documents
  • legal documents
  • 作者在学术期刊上发表自己原创研究/实验结果的文章

Secondary sources are written by people who weren’t directly involved. 第二手来源解释或解释一手来源中描述的数据或事件. Since they are one or more steps removed from the original event, secondary sources are considered less reliable in terms of evidence. 主要总结或综合他人研究的书籍和杂志/报纸文章都是次要来源的例子.

Examples:

  • 一项确定X药物治疗癌症有效性的实验 primary source. A journal article presenting the results of the experiment, written by the researcher who conducted it, is also a primary source. 一篇讨论X药物治疗癌症的能力的杂志文章是一种 secondary source.
  • Anne Frank’s diary is a primary source. A book analyzing or explaining the events described in her diary are secondary sources.
  • The results of an opinion poll is a primary source. A newspaper article interpreting the results is a secondary source.

Primary sources 为你的论点提供第一手的信息和可信的证据.

Secondary sources 提供背景信息，帮助你用其他研究者的观点来支持你的观点.

WHEN IS A SECONDARY SOURCE A PRIMARY SOURCE?

某物是主要来源还是次要来源取决于你如何使用它.

Examples:

  • 如果你正在研究马丁·斯科塞斯，报纸上关于他导演的电影的评论是一个 secondary source. 但如果你正在研究对他的作品的批评性回应，那么这篇评论就是 primary source because it’s a firsthand example.
  • 如果你在写一篇关于乌克兰战争的文章，杂志文章就是 secondary 来源，因为它只总结从主要来源获得的信息. But if your focus is on media coverage of the war, it is a primary source.

VIDEO: What are Primary and Secondary Sources? (University of Houston Libraries)

Sources can also be categorized by their intended audience.

Popular 诸如杂志和报纸之类的新闻来源是为公众而写的. Examples: People, Prevention, Discover, Rolling Stone, Sports Illustrated, National Geographic, Popular Mechanics, Omaha World-Herald, New York Times.

Scholarly 学术期刊等资源是为特定领域的学者或专业人士提供的. 学术期刊文章是由研究人员或学者撰写的，以分享他们研究领域的新知识和进一步理解. Examples: American Journal of Botany, Critical Perspectives on Accounting, College English, Journal of Applied Philosophy, Nebraska Law Review, New England Journal of Medicine.

  • Popular sources help you build an understanding of a topic.
  • Scholarly sources help you develop an academic argument for your research.

了解学术期刊和大众杂志之间的特点和差异将有助于你评估和选择最好的信息来源.


scholarly journals v. popular magazines

Scholarly Journals vs Popular Magazines 由香港理工大学包月刚图书馆在a CC BY-NC 4.0 license.

 
Scholarly Journals vs. Popular Magazines
Scholarly Journals Popular Magazines
Purpose 包含对特定主题的重要研究和发现的评论

Support your arguments/ideas laid out in your research/assignment

Therefore, they are credible resources for your scholarly research/assignment		 Mostly for entertainment & popular culture

Use in your research or assignment if:
they are accepted by your professor or instructor
you need the most up-to-date factual information in your research
Content In-depth research or current development of a very specific topic

Research findings with data or statistics		 Broad overview of topics – both general and complex

Up-to-date information on general interest topic or event
Appearance Lengthy articles with graphs/charts, usually structured with abstact, literature review, methodology, results and conclusion Short articles 设计在吸引人的布局与彩色照片和广告, which do not have a specific format or structure
Author Scholars/Researchers/Experts write in technical and/or academic language Journalists/Writers/Non-specialists write in common language
Audience Scholars/Researchers/Students
to communicate findings and advancement in research		 General Public
to entertain or inform about general events or topics
Reviewer Usually peer-reviewed by experts before published Usually editors/publish review and decide what gets printed
Citation Citations and bibliographies are provided:
to give credit to the original authors
to prove ideas are well-supported		 Citations are seldom included because:
the sources used are usually anonymous

VIDEO: Scholarly vs Popular Sources (McMaster Libraries, McMaster University)

VIDEO: Peer Review in 3 Minutes (NC State University Libraries)

Watch this video lo learn more about the peer review process.